Understanding Tibetan Buddhism Correctly

Previously, I published an article titled "Faith | The Distinction Between Chinese Mahayana and Tibetan Buddhism", which sparked considerable discussion among readers.

Some argue that Bön is not Tibetan Buddhism. Bön was the indigenous belief system of the Zhangzhung region in Tibet. When Buddhism first entered Tibet, Bön resisted its spread—similar to how Taoism initially resisted Buddhism's arrival in China. Later, after Buddhism was embraced by the Tibetan kings and became the dominant religion, Bön was marginalized. Eventually, a branch of Bön heavily borrowed from Buddhism, resulting in what is now known as Yungdrung Bön, which closely resembles Buddhist traditions. Orthodox Tibetan Buddhist sects universally take refuge in Shakyamuni Buddha and do not recognize Tonpa Shenrab Miwo (the founder of Bön) as a Buddha; such claims are seen as unique to Yungdrung Bön itself.

Others believe that so-called Tibetan Buddhism is actually a fusion of Indian Shaivism and native Tibetan Bön traditions, pointing to elements like the "Four Refuges," tantric sexual practices, and blood offerings as evidence—practices they claim are unrelated to original Buddhism.

To clarify the facts, here is an overview based on officially published sources regarding Tibetan Buddhism:

What is Tibetan Buddhism?

Tibetan Buddhism, also known as Lamaism, is a branch of Buddhism primarily practiced among the Tibetan and Mongolian peoples. "Lama" is a Tibetan word meaning "superior teacher."

In the 7th century, Tibetan King Songtsen Gampo adopted Buddhism under the influence of his two wives—Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal and Princess Wencheng of the Tang Dynasty. In the 8th century, Indian monks Śāntarakṣita and Padmasambhava introduced both exoteric and esoteric Buddhist teachings to Tibet.

However, during the reign of King Langdarma in the 9th century, Buddhism was severely suppressed. It was not until the late 10th century, under the support of emerging Tibetan feudal lords, that Buddhism revived in Tibet, evolving into a unique form commonly known as Lamaism. This form developed through a long period of interaction, conflict, and eventual synthesis with the indigenous Bön religion.

In the late 13th century, the Mongol rulers of the Yuan Dynasty further promoted Tibetan Buddhism, enabling high-ranking lamas to wield political power and spreading the religion among Mongols and other ethnic groups.

The Major Schools of Tibetan Buddhism

Today, Tibetan Buddhism consists of four major schools: Gelug, Kagyu, Nyingma, and Sakya.

In Tibet, without some basic knowledge, it is difficult to distinguish between the schools based solely on appearance. Monks from Gelug, Nyingma, and Kagyu orders generally wear similar robes. Only the temple decor or major religious festivals reveal some visual differences. The most significant distinctions lie in their practices and doctrinal emphases.

Gelug School (Yellow Hat School)

The Gelug school was the last of the major Tibetan Buddhist schools to form but is the largest and most influential. Founded in the early 15th century by the great reformer Tsongkhapa, it was based on the teachings of the earlier Kadam school. Tsongkhapa emphasized Madhyamaka (the Middle Way philosophy), rigorous monastic discipline, a balance between sutra and tantra, and systematic education in monasteries.

Because of their strict adherence to precepts and organized institutional structure, the school was called "Gelug" (meaning "Virtuous Tradition"). Since Tsongkhapa founded Ganden Monastery, the school is also sometimes known as the "Ganden Tradition."

Starting from Tsongkhapa’s distinguished disciples, two important reincarnation lineages were established: the Panchen Lama (beginning with Khedrup Je) and the Dalai Lama (beginning with Gendun Drub).

By the mid-Ming Dynasty, the Gelug school’s influence had grown substantially. Its monks, recognizable by their distinctive yellow hats, led to its popular nickname "Yellow Hat School." The Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama eventually became the two highest spiritual authorities in Tibetan Buddhism.

Kagyu School (White Hat School)

The Kagyu school originated in the 11th century, founded by Marpa, who traveled to India three times to study Vajrayana teachings and claimed to have realized the "One Taste of All Phenomena." His student, the legendary yogi Milarepa, and later Gampopa, further developed the lineage, integrating elements of the Kadam tradition.

The Kagyu emphasizes esoteric oral transmission (Tibetan: Ka) and lineage (Tibetan: Gyü), hence the name "Kagyu," meaning "oral lineage." The school is particularly focused on meditation and tantric practices.

Kagyu eventually split into many sub-schools, most notably the Karma Kagyu led by the Karmapa, and others like the Drikung Kagyu and Drukpa Kagyu. Kagyu monasteries were mainly located in the Tsang region (Central Tibet). Kagyu monks traditionally wore white undergarments, hence the nickname "White Hat School."

Today, Kagyu remains one of the most influential schools, second only to the Gelug in terms of followers.

Nyingma School (Red Hat School)

The Nyingma school is the oldest among the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. It traces its origin to the teachings of the Indian master Padmasambhava in the 8th century, who played a crucial role in introducing Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, Tibetan masters like Sokpo Lhapal and Zurpoche formalized the Nyingma lineage. The school emphasizes the "Old Tantras" and distinguishes itself from the "New Tantras" adopted by later traditions.

Nyingma monasteries like Dorje Drak and Mindrolling in Tibet and Dzogchen and Katok monasteries in eastern Tibet are notable centers of learning. Because Nyingma monks wear red hats during ceremonies, they are commonly known as the "Red Hat School."

Sakya School (Flower School)

The Sakya school was founded in the 11th century by Khön Könchok Gyalpo, who established Sakya Monastery in the region of Sakya, Tibet. "Sakya" means "pale earth," referring to the color of the land where the monastery was built.

The Sakya lineage remained a hereditary system within the Khön family. During the Yuan Dynasty, Sakya leader Drogön Chögyal Phagpa was appointed by Kublai Khan as "Imperial Preceptor," wielding immense religious and political power over Tibet. He also invented the 'Phags-pa script, the official script for the Mongol Empire.

After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, the political dominance of the Sakya school declined but it continued to maintain religious influence in the Sakya region. Because the walls of Sakya Monastery are painted with red, white, and grey bands, the school is sometimes called the "Flower School."