Ancient Imperial Collection: A Bowl Made from a Human Skull

Between June and November of 2014, in response to infrastructure renovation projects at the Palace Museum in Beijing, archaeological teams conducted urgent salvage excavations in three areas slated for construction. Among the sites, they uncovered remnants of ancient structures, but what drew particular attention was the discovery of a special deposit pit exclusively used for burying imperial porcelain fragments.

During the meticulous excavation, in addition to retrieving numerous shards of imperial kiln porcelain, archaeologists unearthed a highly significant religious artifact — fragments of a Kapala bowl made from a human skull.

The Kapala bowl, derived from the Sanskrit term Kapala meaning "skull," is a profoundly symbolic ritual object within the Vajrayana tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. Crafted from the upper portion of a revered monk or spiritual master’s human skull, the Kapala represents spiritual transcendence and the ultimate attainment of wisdom. It is often referred to as an "inner offering vessel" or "human skull cup" and is used in sacred rituals such as initiations and empowerments.

Although historical records about the exact origins of the Kapala are sparse, references in the Collected Writings of Emperor Shengzu (Kangxi) suggest that the practice may be rooted in ancient Indian and Tibetan traditions where enlightened masters offered their skulls for religious use after death, embodying self-sacrifice and universal compassion.

Interestingly, the Epic of King Gesar, a revered Tibetan narrative, also mentions the Kapala. In the story, King Gesar ultimately defeats the demon king by draining the soul-storing sea contained within the demon’s Kapala bowl, thus stripping him of his supernatural powers.

By the 5th century, as Buddhism evolved to resonate more deeply with popular faith, it absorbed many elements of Hindu mysticism, including the ritual use of human skulls. The Kapala and similar artifacts were embraced within Vajrayana practice, symbolizing the transformative journey from corporeal existence to spiritual liberation.

As Vajrayana Buddhism spread into Tibet, these ritualistic traditions intermingled with the indigenous Bön religion, where the reverence for human remains was already culturally ingrained through practices like sky burials. Documents from the Dunhuang Manuscripts further attest to this rich fusion, evidencing the deep integration of the human skull ritual vessels within Tibetan spiritual culture.

Importantly, within the Vajrayana worldview, the use of the Kapala is not seen as barbaric but as a profound meditation on the impermanence of life and the eternal continuity of wisdom.

In Tibetan Buddhist iconography, the Kapala frequently appears in the hands of yogis, enlightened beings, dakinis, and wrathful deities. Held high at the heart, the bowl symbolizes the unity of wisdom and method. Used to hold offerings of blood and viscera, the human skull vessel embodies the practitioner's ultimate devotion and transcendence of mundane attachments.

Artistic depictions often show the Kapala overflowing with boiling blood, representing the red Bodhicitta nectar. Rising from the pristine white human skull, this vivid imagery signifies the burning away of ignorance and the illumination of the inner path toward enlightenment.

Beyond its ritualistic use, the Kapala also served as a functional bowl for ascetic monks, deeply symbolizing compassion (karuṇā) and the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā). As a personal item, it constantly reminded practitioners of life's fleeting nature and urged the renunciation of worldly desires.

Today, the Palace Museum preserves seven gold-covered Kapala bowls from the Qing dynasty. Their exquisite craftsmanship and historical significance have elevated them beyond mere religious relics; they are now classified among imperial gold and silver artifacts rather than solely ritual objects.

According to records from the Imperial Workshops (Zaoban Chu), the Qing court maintained detailed documentation regarding the creation and preservation of such sacred items.

During the Qianlong reign, a remarkable Kapala was discovered deep within the ancient temples of Yangpajin, a region historically overseen by the Shamarpa lineage. Upon discovery, this precious human skull bowl was sent to Beijing as a tribute to Emperor Qianlong. Fascinated, the emperor commissioned an inquiry through the Dalai Lama to investigate its provenance.

The Dalai Lama’s report traced the Kapala's origins to the region of Gyakar, noting that it was associated with the reincarnation lineage of a great master named Nemaningbo Khubilkhan. Over several generations, a highly realized monk, Poma Sampa, eventually concealed the bowl within a secluded cave to protect it from worldly corruption.

Later, during the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama, the renowned lama Dorje rediscovered the hidden human skull bowl following a visionary dream guided by a divine goddess. The bowl then became a sacred object revered by successive reincarnations of Khubilkhan.

Moved by the rich spiritual legacy of the artifact, Emperor Qianlong composed a poem titled "In Praise of the Nemaningbo Kapala," extolling the bowl’s "ancient and lustrous" appearance and declaring it far more than an ordinary offering vessel.

Today, this extraordinary Kapala bowl resides in the collection of the National Palace Museum in Taipei, continuing to bear witness to a deep and complex tradition surrounding the sacred use of the human skull in Tibetan Buddhist ritual practice.